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Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine

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This article is about physician qualifications and titles in the United States. For other uses, see DO (disambiguation).
Osteopathic medicine in the United States
Andrew Taylor Still (founder)

Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (DO or D.O., or in Australia DO USA[1]) is a medical degree conferred by the 38 osteopathic medical schools in the United States.[2][3][4] DO and Doctor of Medicine (MD) degrees are equivalent: a DO graduate may become licensed as a physician or surgeon and thus have full medical and surgical practicing rights in all 50 US states. As of 2023, there were 186,871 osteopathic physicians and medical students in DO programs across the United States.[5] Osteopathic medicine (as defined and regulated in the United States) emerged historically from the quasi-medical practice of osteopathy, but has become a distinct and proper medical profession.

As of 2014, more than 28% of all U.S. medical students were DO students.[6][7] The curricula at DO-granting medical schools are equivalent to those at MD-granting medical schools, which focus the first two years on the biomedical and clinical sciences, then two years on core clinical training in the clinical specialties.[8]

One notable difference between DO and MD training is that DOs spend an additional 300–500 hours to study pseudoscientific hands-on manipulation of the human musculoskeletal system (osteopathic manipulative technique) alongside conventional evidence-based medicine and surgery like their MD peers.[9][10][11]

Upon completing medical school, a DO graduate can enter an internship or residency training program, which may be followed by fellowship training.[8] DO graduates attend the same graduate medical education programs as their MD counterparts.[12]

History

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Further information: Osteopathic medicine in the United States § History

Osteopathy, the older form of osteopathic medicine, began in the United States in 1874. The term "osteopathy" was coined by the physician and surgeon[13][14] Andrew Taylor Still, who named his new discipline of medicine "osteopathy", reasoning that "the bone, osteon, was the starting point from which [he] was to ascertain the cause of pathological conditions".[15] He founded the American School of Osteopathy (now A.T. Still University of the Health Sciences) in Kirksville, Missouri, for the teaching of osteopathy on May 10, 1892. While the state of Missouri granted the right to award the MD degree,[16] he remained dissatisfied with the limitations of conventional medicine and instead chose to retain the distinction of the DO degree.[17] In 1898 the American Institute of Osteopathy started the Journal of Osteopathy (presently known as the Journal of Osteopathic Medicine[18]) and by that time four states recognized the profession.[19]

The osteopathic medical profession has evolved into two branches: non-physician manual medicine osteopaths, who were educated and trained outside the United States; and US-trained osteopathic physicians, who conduct a full scope of medical and surgical practice. The regulation of non-physician manual medicine osteopaths varies greatly between jurisdictions. In the United States, osteopathic physicians holding the DO degree have the same rights, privileges, and responsibilities as physicians with a Doctor of Medicine (MD) degree.[9] Osteopathic physicians and non-physician osteopaths are so distinct that in practice they function as separate professions.

As originally conceived by Andrew Still, the letters "DO" stood for "Diplomate in Osteopathy" and the title conferred by the degree was "Doctor of Osteopathy".[20] Subsequently, the degree also came to be entitled "Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine".[21] Since the late 20th century, the AOA has preferred that this title be used exclusively.[22] Its members resolved at a 1960 conference:

Be it resolved, that the American Osteopathic Association institute a policy, both officially in our publications and individually on a conversational basis, to use the terms osteopathic medicine in place of the word osteopathy and osteopathic physician and surgeon in place of osteopath; the words osteopathy and osteopath being reserved for historical, sentimental, and informal discussions only.[23]

A minority of DOs continue to use the old terms, and the American Academy of Osteopathy retains the old usage in its name.[24]

Demographics

[edit]

In 2018, there were 114,425 osteopathic medical doctors in the United States and 145,343 total DOs and osteopathic medical students. The proportion of females in the profession has steadily increased since the 1980s.[25] In 1985, about 10 percent of DO physicians were female, compared with 41 percent in 2018.[26] Between 2008 and 2012, 49 percent of new DO graduates were females.[25]

During the 2011–12 academic year, the osteopathic medical student body consisted of: 69 percent white/non-Hispanic, 19 percent Asian or Pacific Islander, 3.5 percent Hispanic, 3 percent African-American, and 0.5 percent Native American or Alaskan.[25] The remainder were listed as "other or not entered". The five-year change in osteopathic medical student enrollment by ethnicity has increased by 19 percent for white/non-Hispanic students, 36 percent for Asian-American students, 24 percent for Black/African American students, and 60 percent for Hispanic/Latino students.[27]

Education, training and distinctiveness

[edit]
Further information: Osteopathic medicine in the United States and Comparison of MD and DO in the United States

Osteopathic medical school curricula are equivalent to those at schools granting the MD degree. Both US-granted MD and US-granted DO programs are listed in the World Directory of Medical Schools as medical schools. Furthermore, the accreditation agencies for both degrees, LCME and COCA for MD and DO, respectively, are recognized by the World Federation for Medical Education (WFME).[28] Per WFME, "Recognition Status is awarded by WFME to an accrediting agency working to an internationally accepted high standard, and confers the understanding that the quality of accreditation of undergraduate medical schools is to an appropriate and rigorous standard." Once admitted to an osteopathic medical school, students study for four years to graduate. The schooling is divided into the pre-clinical and clinical years. The pre-clinical years, the first and second years, focus on the biomedical and clinical sciences. The clinical years, the third and fourth years, consist of core clinical training and sub-internships in the clinical specialties.

Osteopathic medical school accreditation standards require training in internal medicine, obstetrics/gynecology, pediatrics, family medicine, surgery, psychiatry, emergency medicine, radiology, preventive medicine, and public health.[29] According to Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, "the training, practice, credentialing, licensure, and reimbursement of osteopathic physicians is virtually indistinguishable from those of physicians with MD qualifications, with 4 years of osteopathic medical school followed by specialty and subspecialty training and board certification".[8]

DO schools provide an additional 300–500 hours in the study of hands-on manual medicine and the body's musculoskeletal system, which is referred to as osteopathic manipulative medicine (OMM).[9] Osteopathic manipulation is a pseudoscience.[10]

Before entering osteopathic medical school, an applicant must complete a four-year undergraduate degree and take a national standardized exam called the Medical College Admissions Test (MCAT). Some combined undergraduate/medical programs exist. Some authors note the differences in the average MCAT scores and grade point average of students who matriculate at DO schools compared to those who matriculate at MD schools within the United States. In 2021, the average MCAT and GPA for students entering US-based MD programs were 511.5 and 3.73,[30] respectively, and 504.0 and 3.55 for DO matriculants.[31] DO medical schools are more likely to accept non-traditional students,[32][33] who are older and entering medicine as a second career, or coming from non-science majors.

DO medical students are required to take the Comprehensive Osteopathic Medical Licensure Examination (COMLEX-USA), which is sponsored by the National Board of Osteopathic Medical Examiners (NBOME). The COMLEX-USA is a series of three osteopathic medical licensing examinations. The first two Cognitive Evaluations (CEs) of the COMLEX-USA (Level 1 and Level 2) are taken during medical school and are prerequisites for residency programs, consisting of 352 multiple-choice questions (items) each.[34][35][36] Finally, COMLEX Level 3 is usually taken during the first year of residency, and consists of 420 multiple-choice questions and 26 Clinical Decision-Making (CDM) cases.[37]

In addition to the COMLEX-USA, DO medical students may choose to sit for United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE), which is sponsored by the National Board of Medical Examiners (NBME).[38] This is typically done under specific circumstances, such as when the student desires to enter a residency that may have a historic preference for the USMLE, or if a higher USMLE score would help elevate the student's application to be more competitive. USMLE pass rates for DO and MD students in 2012 are as follows: Step 1: 91% and 94%, Step 2 CK: 96% and 97%, and Step 2 CS: 87% and 97%, respectively (this number may be misleading as only 46 DO students compared to 17,118 MD students were evaluated for Step 2 CS) Step 3: 100% and 95% (this number may be misleading, as only 16 DO students compared to 19,056 MD students, were evaluated for Step 3).[39]

Licensing and board certification

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To obtain a license to practice medicine in the United States, osteopathic medical students must pass the Comprehensive Osteopathic Medical Licensing Examination (COMLEX),[40] the licensure exam administered by the National Board of Osteopathic Medical Examiners throughout their medical training. Students are given the option of also taking the United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) to apply for certain residency programs that may want USMLE scores in addition to COMLEX scores.[41] Those that have received or are in the process of earning an MD or DO degree are both eligible to sit for the USMLE.[42] Because of their additional training, only DO candidates are eligible to sit for the COMLEX.[41]

In February 2014, the American Osteopathic Association and the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education agreed to unify standard and osteopathic graduate medical education starting in 2020.[43] Before 2020, DOs had the option to attend ACGME residencies or AOA residencies. From 2020, DOs and MDs attend the same ACGME residencies. Upon completion of internship and residency requirements for their chosen medical specialty, holders of the DO may elect to be board certified by either a specialty board (through the American Medical Association's American Board of Medical Specialties) or an osteopathic specialty board (through the American Osteopathic Association Bureau of Osteopathic Specialists certifying boards) or both.

Depending on the state, medical licensure may be issued from a combined board (DO and MD) or a separate board of medical examiners.[44] All of the 70 state medical boards are members of the Federation of State Medical Boards.[45]

Both "DOs and MDs require rigorous study in the field of medicine",[46] with similar entry requirements and curriculum structures that are "largely the same,"[42] and both produce graduates who are licensed and accredited as physicians in the United States.[46] Retired US Air Force flight surgeon and MD Harriet Hall,[47] one of the five founding editors of Science-Based Medicine,[48] has written that US Doctors of Osteopathic Medicine "must be distinguished from 'osteopaths', members of a less regulated or unregulated profession that is practiced in many countries" as "[o]steopaths get inferior training" that is not comparable to that undertaken by DOs.[49]

International variations

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Currently, there are no osteopathic medical programs located outside of the United States that would qualify an individual to practice as an osteopathic physician in the United States.[50] Foreign osteopathic degrees are not recognized by any state in the US or any region else as being equivalent to American DO degrees.

International practice rights

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The International Labour Organization (ILO), an agency of the United Nations, issued a letter affirming that US-trained osteopathic physicians are fully licensed physicians who prescribe medication and perform surgery. The acknowledgment draws a clear separation between American DOs, who are medical doctors, and non-physician osteopaths trained outside of the United States. Within the international standards that classify jobs to promote international comparability across occupations, US-trained DOs are now categorized with all other physicians as medical doctors.[51] This event took place in June 2018 and started a relay of events and opened doors for DOs as more countries started to understand and give full recognition to US-trained medical doctors with the DO degree. The Association of Medical Councils of Africa (AMCOA) approved a resolution in 2019 granting the AOA's request that AMCOA recognize US-trained DOs as fully licensed physicians with practice rights equivalent to MDs, opening its 20 member countries, which include Botswana, Eswatini, Gambia, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Malawi, Mauritius, Namibia, Nigeria, Rwanda, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, South Africa, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe to DOs.[52] (Note: Some of the member African countries of AMCOA had independently licensed DOs before; however, this recognition unifies those who did or did not).

Similarly, on November 9, 2023, during its 15th biennial Members General Assembly in Bali, Indonesia, the International Association of Medical Regulatory Authorities (IAMRA) passed a resolution. This resolution endorses the acknowledgement of U.S.-trained DOs as fully licensed physicians, on par with MDs, across 47 member countries of IAMRA.[53] IAMRA members include the medical councils of the following countries: Albania, Australia, Bahamas, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Brazil, Canada, Egypt, Eswatini, Finland, Germany, Ghana, Grenada, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Oman, Pakistan, Rwanda, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore, South Africa, South Korea, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, The Gambia, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, United States of America, and Zimbabwe.[54] While many of these countries already recognized the DO as a medical degree prior to the convention, it unified many other countries under the umbrella.

Furthermore, DOs may work internationally as physicians and surgeons with any humanitarian organization such as the World Health Organization and Doctors Without Borders. The following is an international licensure summary for US-trained Doctors of Osteopathic Medicine, as listed by the American Osteopathic Association, that shows countries where US DOs have previously applied for licensure (countries not listed are regions with no history of US DOs applying for licensure):[55][56]

AOA international licensure summary[57]
Country Year of latest policy Medical practice rights Requirements for licensure
Argentina 2006 Unlimited Foreign physicians must submit credentials to various agencies and then appear before any of the National Universities to have their diploma recognized.
Australia 2013 Unlimited According to documents published online, the Medical Board of Australia has "agreed to accept the DO USA as a primary medical qualification for medical registration provided that the DO USA was awarded by a medical school which has been accredited by the Commission on Osteopathic College Accreditation".[58]
Austria 2009 Unlimited Hospital must have position unable to be filled by Austrian physician.
Bahamas 2004 Unlimited US license recognized.
Bahrain 2010 Unlimited US license recognized.
Bangladesh 2000s Unlimited US license recognized.
Barbados 1995 Limited Osteopathic manipulative medicine (OMM) only.
Belize 2009 Unlimited Must complete a Belizean residency for permanent license eligibility.
Bermuda 1997 Unlimited Required at least 2 years of GME and examination or interview by the council's Examination Committee. Non-Bermudans must have approval from the Ministry of Labour and Home Affairs to work on the island.
Botswana 2019 Unlimited
Brazil 2007 Unlimited Completion of Brazilian board exam, establishing residency and some training in a Brazilian hospital is required.
Canada Alberta Unlimited Requires at least 2 years of GME accredited by the ACGME or AOA and must have passed the Universities Coordinating Council Exam, a basic sciences exam, and have passed all three parts of the Licentiate of the Medical Council of Canada.
British Columbia Unlimited Requires at least 1 year of GME approved by the AOA or the ACGME, completed at least 1 year of GME in Canada, passed all three parts of the LMCC.
Manitoba Unlimited US license recognized.
New Brunswick Unlimited Requires at least 2 years of GME approved by the AOA or the ACGME and has passed all 3 parts of the LMCC. Reciprocity pathway for DO physicians with a Maine license.
Newfoundland Unlimited The Medical Act 2011 allows full licensure of osteopathic physicians, both for the country's full registry and its educational registry.
NW Territories Unlimited US license recognized.
Nova Scotia Unlimited Requires a Canadian or ACGME residency.
Ontario Unlimited Requires a Canadian or ACGME residency.
Prince Edward Island Unlimited
Quebec Unlimited Requires 1 year of GME approved by the AOA or ACGME, 1 year of GME in Quebec passed the written, oral and clinical board examination of the College of Family Physicians of Canada, and must speak French fluently.
Saskatchewan Unlimited
Yukon Unlimited US license recognized.
Cayman Islands (UK) 1983 Unlimited US license recognized.
Central African Republic 1990 Unlimited US licensure and annual attendance at the National Congress for Physicians.
Chile 2008 Unlimited A written exam in Spanish is required, besides a series of practical tests involving common procedures (CPR, intubation, lumbar puncture, etc.).
China 2009 Unlimited United States DO physicians are permitted to apply for short-term medical practice licensure.
Colombia 1996 Unlimited Same requirements as other foreign physicians.
Costa Rica 2009 Unlimited Same requirements as other foreign physicians.
Dominican Republic 2000 Unlimited US license & board certification recognized.
Ecuador 1990 Unlimited Same requirements as other foreign physicians. Reciprocity exists in most Latin American countries.
Eswatini 2019 Unlimited
Ethiopia 2011 Unlimited Must renew the license every 5 years.
Finland 1996 Unlimited Same requirements as other foreign physicians.
France 2009 Limited OMM only. The French government does not recognize the full scope of practice of osteopathic medicine.
The Gambia 2011 Unlimited
Germany 2008 Unlimited Same requirements as other foreign physicians. Depends on the need. Decisions are made on an individual basis.
Ghana 2019 Unlimited
Greece 2009 Unlimited Greek citizenship is required, unless, in rare instances, there exists a crucial need for certain types of specialist physicians. Further, a work permit must be obtained, a difficult task, and speaking Greek is an unwritten requirement. These are the same requirements as other foreign physicians.
Grenada 2007 Unlimited US license recognized.
Guyana 1996 Unlimited Case-by-case basis.
Honduras 2009 Unlimited Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras must accredit all foreign titles. After accreditation is completed, the applicant must seek registration with the Medical College of Honduras (MCH).
Hong Kong 1998 Unlimited Written examination. Personal interview. Training approval.
India 2019 Unlimited The DO degree is recognized for full medical and surgical practice. As of 2019, a DO may practice medicine only if he/she did ACGME residencies, which are already recognized by the National Medical Commission.[59] According to the Indian Medical Act of 1956, "Provided further that a person seeking provisional or permanent registration shall not have to qualify the Screening Test if he/she holds an Under Graduate medical qualification from Australia/Canada/New Zealand/United Kingdom/United States of America and the holder thereof also been awarded a Post Graduate medical qualification in Australia/Canada/New Zealand/United Kingdom/United States of America and has been recognized for enrolment as medical practitioner in that country." A US-granted MD and DO satiate the undergraduate aspect of the law. ACGME residencies fulfill the postgraduate clause of the law. The Commission is still deciding on recognizing AOA residencies (applicable to those DO graduates who graduated from AOA residencies before the 2020 AOA-ACGME merger).
Indonesia 1992 Unlimited and restricted Foreign physicians affiliated with a university project or a mission have unlimited practice rights. No private practice is allowed.
Iran 2009 Unlimited Iranian citizens who have received both the DO degree from a US osteopathic school and are board-certified in a clinical specialty. Osteopathic degrees from other countries are not accepted. The process of evaluation of the medical education and clinical training is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Health and Medical Education (MoHME).
Israel 2007 Unlimited Same requirements as other foreign physicians. Hebrew required.
Italy 2009 Unlimited Physicians are discouraged from seeking employment in Italy without firm contracts and work permits. If there is a US state law outlining reciprocity with Italy, a statement to this effect from the Italian Consulate will warrant better chances.
Jamaica 1994 Limited and restricted DO physicians were permitted to supply some services while participating in a specific mission project.
Jordan 2012 Unlimited
Kenya 2007 Unlimited
Lebanon 2004 Unlimited AOA letter required. Examination required.
Lesotho 1990s Unlimited Applicants must appear before the Medical, Dental, and Pharmacy Council to answer some medical questions and present their credentials. The council will also make a recommendation about where the applicant's skills would be most helpful in the country.
Liberia 1990s Unlimited Same requirements as other foreign physicians.
Luxembourg 1987 Unlimited The practice of medicine in Luxembourg by a doctor who is not an EU national is very rare.
Malta 2010 Unlimited Accepted on a case-by-case basis if the training meets the minimum educational requirements for physicians in the EU (Article 24 of Directive 2005/36/EC). Examination required.
Malawi 1991 Unlimited
Mauritius 2019 Unlimited
Mexico 2011 Unlimited & Restricted Yucatán's Health Secretary Alvaro Quijano of the signed a proclamation recognizing US-trained osteopathic physicians in the state of Yucatán; DO physicians may now obtain short-term and long-term licensure through the Health Secretary's office. All other Mexican states require work permits, which are only available in conjunction with the association of a short-term medical mission project.
Micronesia 1993 Unlimited Statutes specifically include DOs
Namibia 2019 Unlimited
Nepal 2008 Unlimited Approval by the Nepal Medical Council and a visa from the Immigration Department.
Netherlands 2009 Unlimited Same requirements as other foreign physicians.
New Zealand 2008 Unlimited Hearing required. Case-by-case basis.
Nigeria 2010 Unlimited US licensure and completion of specialty training required.
Norway 2009 Limited OMM only, but DOs may apply for recognition as medical doctors.[60]
Pakistan 2011 Unlimited US osteopathic medical schools meet the Medical and Dental Council's statutory regulations for international medical graduates. The scope is unlimited, but practice setting may be restricted
Panama 2009 Unlimited Panamanian citizenship required.
Papua New Guinea 2010 Unlimited Work permit required. Short-term or a long-term volunteer service license is also available.
Peru 2011 Unlimited Process for licensure is the same as for other IMGs.
Poland 2009 Unlimited Examination & Polish required.
Qatar 2011 Unlimited Must possess a valid work visa, and pass written and oral examinations.
Rwanda 2019 Unlimited
Russia 2006 Unlimited Foreign physicians make arrangements to practice through Russian sponsors, such as hospitals or businesses.
Saint Lucia 2000 Unlimited US credentials recognized.
Saudi Arabia 2009 Unlimited Foreign physicians must be recruited by a government agency, a corporation, or a private health care entity, such as a hospital.
Seychelles 2019 Unlimited
Sierra Leone 1993 Unlimited Notarized US credentials recognized.
South Africa 2019 Unlimited US degree recognized. The AMCOA recognition of American trained DOs gave full medical and surgical practicing rights to the professionals. Same requirements as foreign physicians.
South Sudan 2019 Unlimited
Sweden 2005 Unlimited Same requirements as other foreign physicians. Applicants must have their educations evaluated in order to determine if it is equivalent to the Swedish standards. After this, applicants must complete a two-part proficiency exam consisting of theoretical and practical portions. As this test is given in Swedish, applicants must speak Swedish at Level C1 in accordance with the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Proficiency in Norwegian or Danish also satisfy the language requirements. A course in Swedish laws and additional clinical training is required upon a passing exam score. Some temporary allowances are made.[61]
Taiwan 2020 Unlimited As per licensure, a qualifying candidate graduated from the department of medicine in a foreign university or independent college recognized by the R.O.C. Ministry of Education.[62] All US issued DO medical degree programs are recognized by the R.O.C. Ministry of Education, since United States DO physicians are permitted to apply for medical practice licensure in R.O.C. since 2009.
Tanzania 1985 Unlimited US license and GME recognized. Temporary work permits are available.
Uganda 2008 Unlimited
United Arab Emirates 2009 Unlimited Examination required.
United Kingdom 2005 Unlimited US-trained DO physicians are eligible for full medical practice rights. Applicants must pass the PLAB examination and work for one year in the National Health Service. Following that year, the applicants will be able to apply for a license to practice privately. For GMC registration as a specialist, postgraduate training will need to be separately recognized by the Postgraduate Medical Education and Training Board (PMETB). GOsC registration is also required.
Venezuela 2007 Unlimited Recognized status under the law of the practice of medicine.
Vietnam 1995 Unlimited Foreign physicians can fill vacancies in hospitals that need certain specialists.
Zambia 2009 Unlimited US licensure required.
Zimbabwe 2019 Unlimited The AMCOA recognition of American trained DOs gave full medical and surgical practicing rights to the professionals. Same requirements as foreign physicians.
OMM: Osteopathic Manipulative Medicine

See also

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Notes and references

[edit]
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  2. ^ "U.S. Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine". AACOM. December 2019. Archived from the original on October 26, 2014. Retrieved December 28, 2019.
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  5. ^ "OMP Report". American Osteopathic Association. Retrieved August 30, 2024.
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  24. ^ Allen TW (2010). "Osteopathic medical terminology – redux". The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association. 110 (12): 743–744. PMID 21178160.
  25. ^ a b c "Osteopathic Medical Profession Report 2012" (PDF). American Osteopathic Association. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 16, 2013. Retrieved December 16, 2012.
  26. ^ "Osteopathic Medicine Profession Report 2015" (PDF). American Osteopathic Association. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 1, 2016. Retrieved January 26, 2016.
  27. ^ "Osteopathic Medicine Profession Report 2015" (PDF). American Osteopathic Association. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 1, 2016. Retrieved January 26, 2016.
  28. ^ "Agencies with Recognition Status - World Federation for Medical Education". The World Federation for Medical Education. February 9, 2017. Archived from the original on March 28, 2023. Retrieved March 28, 2023.
  29. ^ "Overview of Osteopathic Medical Education/Accreditation/The Four-Year Curriculum (2012 Osteopathic Medical College Information Book)" (PDF). American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine. 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 1, 2023. Retrieved April 21, 2011.
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  32. ^ "Osteopathic Medical College Information Book" (PDF). American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine. 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 3, 2022. Retrieved July 5, 2012.
  33. ^ Madison Park (June 13, 2011). "Never too late to be a doctor". CNN News. Archived from the original on November 10, 2012. Retrieved December 17, 2011.
  34. ^ "Examination Format — NBOME". Archived from the original on June 22, 2023. Retrieved June 22, 2023.
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  36. ^ "Examination Format — NBOME". Archived from the original on June 22, 2023. Retrieved June 22, 2023.
  37. ^ "Examination Format — NBOME". Archived from the original on June 22, 2023. Retrieved June 22, 2023.
  38. ^ "United States Medical Licensing Examination | USMLE Bulletin | Eligibility". Usmle.org. Archived from the original on June 27, 2018. Retrieved February 22, 2012.
  39. ^ "2012 Annual Report" (PDF). National Board of Medical Examiners. 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 9, 2013. Retrieved August 20, 2013.
  40. ^ "Board Examinations and Licensure" (PDF). Medical College Information Book, 2012 edition. AACOM. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 5, 2012. Retrieved November 19, 2012.
  41. ^ a b "COMLEX-USA: Bulletin of Information" (PDF). National Board of Osteopathic Medical Examiners. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 16, 2012. Retrieved November 19, 2012.
  42. ^ a b Murphy B (February 1, 2023). "DO vs. MD: How much does the medical school degree type matter?". American Medical Association. Archived from the original on August 6, 2023. Retrieved December 3, 2023.
  43. ^ "Allopathic and Osteopathic Medical Communities Commit to a Single Graduate Medical Education Accreditation System" (PDF). Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 14, 2014. Retrieved March 3, 2014.
  44. ^ "Directory of State Medical and Osteopathic Boards". Federation of State Medical Boards. Archived from the original on July 9, 2012. Retrieved July 6, 2012.
  45. ^ "Federation of State Medical Boards". Federation of State Medical Boards. Archived from the original on November 15, 2012. Retrieved November 18, 2012.
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